Introduction to Sociology: Module 1 Shared expectations help create social order Individuals and the social world mutually influence one another People are fundamentally social beings The scientific study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior ◦ Sociologists ask questions such as: Why and how people and groups interact with one another? How are different groups or societies organized? How do they deal with conflict and change? How do changes in one society affect other societies? Dyads (E.g., romantic couples) Small Groups (E.g., a family) Large Groups (E.g., Latinos in the U.S.) Nations (E.g., The U.S.) The global society (the entire world as a single entity) Groups: set of people who interact (more or less) regularly and are conscious of their identity as a unit (families, clubs, sports teams, etc.) Groups can be as small as 2 people ◦ Dyad – a group consisting of two people ◦ Triad – a group consisting of three people ◦ Coalition – a subgroup of a triad formed when two members unite against the third member Sociologists argue that the biggest change in group dynamics goes from changing a dyad to a triad. Only the dyad has the potential for true balance. Recurrent social patterns Ordered behavior and the rules that govern group behavior Shared experiences among members Common understandings People are social beings People spend most of their lives in groups Interactions between people and groups are reciprocal Conflict and change are inevitable All groups have certain organizing characteristics We all have reasonable assumptions (common sense ideas) based on logical deduction, past experiences, and stereotypes However, sociologists rely on scientific evidence not common sense assumptions Many common sense assumptions are challenged by scientific evidence ◦ E.g., “As developing countries modernize, the lives of their female citizens improve.” This is false – evidence shows that the status of women in many developed and developing countries is getting worse. Women earn less than men; own only 1% of the world’s property; and are significantly more likely to live in poverty and be illiterate Seeing the General in the Particular: Peter Berger has suggested sociologists look for general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. Seeing the Strange in the Familiar: suggests that “things are not always what they seem.” Sociology pushes us to question the assumptions we are making about society, and reveals aspects of our social life that we typically would not claim to be “obvious” facts. ◦ Apply a critical eye to social life. ◦ Identify general patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. Berger calls this “debunking”. ◦ E.g., Why do some individuals get punished more harshly for the same crimes than others do? What social factors might be related to other issues like teenage pregnancy or late-life divorce? The sociological imagination – the ability to see the impact of massive cultural and historical processes on our private lives. The sociological imagination allows us to recognize that the solutions to many of our most serious social problems lie not in changing the personal situations and characteristics of individual people but in changing the social institutions and roles available to them. “To understand either the individual or society we must understand both.” ◦ Our personal experiences can be best understood by examining them in the broader social context (external forces). ◦ Connection between “history” and biography. ◦ Understanding opportunities and constraints, the privileges and penalties. C. Wright Mills A willingness to recognize the relationship between individual experiences and public issues ◦ E.g., how is the unemployment of a factory worker in Michigan related to political and economic forces in our society? Sociologists ask questions that can be measured objectively and scientifically While sociologists may study religious beliefs held by groups of people, they do not make judgments about what beliefs are right or wrong Applied sociologists conduct research to help organizations solve problems and that impact social policy ◦ All the social sciences study aspects of human behavior and social life Cultural Anthropology focuses on the way of life or culture of a group Psychology focuses on individual behavior and mental processes Political Science focuses on government systems and power Economics focuses on economic conditions and how people organize, produce, and distribute goods Sociology focuses on human interaction, groups and social structure Better understand social situations and diverse perspectives Be able to collect data and evaluate problems Understand the intended and unintended consequences of social policies Reveal the complexities of social life Learn more about ourselves and our biases Develop useful job skills The majority are employed in colleges and universities Others work in business, government, and social service organizations Wherever they work, sociologists utilize their sociological imaginations to study human interaction, impact social policy, and solve problems Understanding sociology requires an understanding of the different levels of analysis – social groups from the smallest to the largest The social world model allows us to picture the levels of analysis in our social environment as an interconnected series of small groups, organizations, institutions, and societies Social units— interconnected parts of the social world Social structure— people and groups that bring order to our lives and hold social units together Social institutions— provide the rules, roles, and relationships to direct and control human behavior All are interconnected Social processes— the actions taken by people in social groups Process of socialization— how we learn the social expectations for members of society Process of change— every social group and level is continually changing The environment— the setting surrounding each social unit The social world can be studied from a variety of levels: ◦ Micro-level (individuals and small groups) Importance: micro interactions form the basis of all social organizations ◦ Meso-level (intermediate sized units) Importance: helps explain the processes and institutions in a society ◦ Macro-level (focus on entire nations, global forces, and international trends) Importance: Helps understand how larger social forces shape everyday life Each level adds depth to a topic How do couples divide housework responsibilities? Which factors determine the percentage of women in political power in a certain country? Does the size of the sports stadium matter for students who are choosing a college? ◦ Answer: All three questions could be studied from each of the three levels Levels of analysis simply refers to group size, or how many people we are studying. Introduction to Sociology: Module 2 Prior to the 19th century religion was a strong influence on knowledge 19th century philosophers helped create the modern way of studying society Coined the term “sociology” Called for systematic data collection and objective analysis to describe changes in society Asked “What holds society together?” (social statics or structure), and “Why is there change in society?” (social dynamics or process) 1st to establish sociological research methods Translated and abridged the work of August Comte. Comte read it and preferred Martineau’s version. Studied American morals (guiding values) and manners (observable behaviors influenced by morals) Established a code of ethics There is a real physical – social world that can be studied systematically. There is order in the world result
ing from a series of causes and effects. Empirical knowledge gathers and measures facts objectively and carefully so that findings will be the same for all people who observe those facts. Scientific knowledge must be based on measurable and observable phenomena. Science is rooted in objectivity. Theories – statements regarding how facts are related to each other and the connection between them The level of analysis and theory help determine the method used to measure the social phenomena ◦ E.G., “Childhood experiences have an impact on career choices” Scientific sociology (influenced by Comte and Durkheim) focuses on objectivity and modeling discipline after the natural sciences Humanistic/Interpretive sociology emphasizes the unique capacity of humans to create meaning Critical sociology sees the role of sociology being to improve society and/or through the “social improvement” tradition, otherwise known as applied sociology. Each tradition will influence a major theory. Theoretical perspective- a basic view of society that: ◦ Guides sociologists’ ideas and research ◦ Helps them understand social behavior ◦ Helps develop explanations of organized social patterns and their relationships ◦ Can be micro- or macro- level (all can be used at the meso level) Symbolic Interaction Theory: (or social construction or interpretative theory) ◦ Main ideas: Through interactions and symbols, we socially construct our worlds. These constructions help us decide how to act and are dependent upon our social positions Influenced by humanistic/interpretive sociology ◦ Key theorists: George H. Mead, the Iowa School ◦ Main criticisms: neglects macro-structures; difficult to study concepts like “the mind” and “the self” Rational Choice Theory: (or exchange theory) ◦ Main ideas: People make choices based on utilitarian factors motivated by self interest; attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costs; every interaction involves an exchange of something valued ◦ Main criticisms: macro-level and internal processes given little attention; challenge of the idea that human behavior is always self-centered or utilitarian; cannot explain altruistic behavior Structural-Functional Theory: ( or functional theory) ◦ Main ideas: society is primarily stable and orderly; all parts of the system are interrelated and necessary for society’s function; influenced by scientific sociology ◦ Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton ◦ Main criticisms: Fails to explain change in society; assumes conflict is harmful (but it can actually lead to greater stability); just because a system seems stable does not mean that it is equitable Functionalists examine the different functions of various parts of society. ◦ Manifest functions – planned outcomes for social institutions/structures. Carrot farmer successfully grows a crop. ◦ Latent functions – unplanned or unintended outcomes for social institutions/structures. Crop attracts some rabbits and now farmer supplies carrots AND rabbit fur to the village. ◦ Dysfunctions – actions that undermine the stability of society. Rabbits eat all carrots, so farmer has none to supply to village. Conflict Theory: ◦ Main ideas: conflict underlies all social relations because of injustice in society; social change is desirable, especially when it can lead to greater equality; the powerful impose their values and beliefs on the weaker; influenced by critical sociology ◦ Key theorists: Marx, Du Bois, Dahrendorf, Simmel, Coser ◦ Main criticisms: micro-level not explained; difficult to test empirically; not effective in explaining cohesion and cooperation; too political or radical Feminist Theory ◦ Main Ideas: criticizes the hierarchical structures in society that treat women and minorities unfairly; sociology has traditionally been male dominated; feminist theory is rooted in conflict and symbolic interactionism. ◦ Key theorists: Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Jessie Bernard, Patricia Hill Collins, Janet Saltzman Chafetz Weber fits into both micro and macro approaches Verstehen (understanding) – actions that occur affect our interpretation of the social world and our actions Focused on bureaucracies which he believed to be guided by rationality (efficiency) Planning the study ◦ Define the topic/problem ◦ Review existing relevant research ◦ Formulate hypotheses Designing the research methods ◦ Design the research method ◦ Select a sample ◦ Collect the data Doing the analysis Drawing conclusions Define the problem clearly Find out what is already known about the topic Formulate hypotheses Operationalize variables – clearly define parameters ◦ E.G., What do we mean by a “hospital stay” = one or more overnight stays in a hospital as a patient while under the age of 16 Ways that two concepts can be related: ◦ Correlation – empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are associated with changes in the other ◦ Cause and effect Independent variable- the cause of change Dependent variable- the variable that changes Time dimension necessary ◦ Spurious relationship – coincidental correlation Control variables help eliminate the possibility of a spurious relationship Methods depend upon the level of analysis, the theory, and the research question The value of the study depends upon the quality of the data collected The Survey Method: ◦ Interview- conducted by speaking with respondents directly ◦ Questionnaire- respondents answer in writing Open-ended questions- allow the respondent to answer however they wish Close-ended questions- force the respondents to choose from among a set of predetermined responses Field studies/observational methods- systematic, planned observations of social interactions ◦ Detached/non-participant- the researcher merely observes (unobtrusive) ◦ Participant observation- the researcher participates in the activity being studied Research effects- the group may be altered by the presence of the researcher Ethnography- a field study that involves self reflection; the findings guide the future methods and observations Controlled experiments- all variables are controlled except the ones being studied ◦ Control group- subjects who are not exposed to the treatment ◦ Experimental group- subjects who are exposed to the treatment ◦ Allow for the examination of true cause and effect, but cannot be used to study many sociological questions, research effects may result, and it is unethical to introduce many variables into the laboratory Existing sources- using pre-existing materials in a new way ◦ Secondary analysis- Using data that has already been collected for other studies Data may not be representative, may not directly answer the researcher’s questions, and any problems in the original data will persist in the new study ◦ Content analysis- systematic categorization and recording of information from written or recorded sources Unobtrusive, inexpensive, and easy to do Sample- a small group of people who are systematically chosen to represent the larger population ◦ Representative- accurately reflects the group being studied ◦ Random- every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected ◦ Non-representative- cannot be generalized to the larger population Data is interpreted Results are discussed and conclusions are drawn about whether the hypotheses are supported or rejected Findings must be replicable Each study gets us closer to an accurate understanding of the social world Sociologists must ensure that subjects are not harmed in any way and that their confidentiality is protected The subjects must provide informed consent Human subjects boards at universities and research institutions help protect subjects Introduction to Sociology: Module 3 Societies are composed of structures and consist of people who live together in a particular geographic area. ◦ Positions we
hold ◦ Groups we belong to ◦ Institutions in which we participate Emile Durkheim created a continuum between simple and complex societies Mechanic Solidarity societies Organic Solidarity societies ◦ Small, simple, pre-modern societies ◦ Held together by common beliefs, values, and emotional ties ◦ Labor is divided by male/female distinctions and age groupings. ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Large, complex, modern societies Held together by the specialization of tasks Division of labor Efficiency Institutions and bureaucratic organizations begin to exist Hunter and Gatherer Societies Rely on vegetation and animals to live Organized around kinship Nomadic Small (between 20-50 members) Gendered division of labor Resources shared fairly Actions and behaviors dictated through tradition or survival ◦ Lack material possessions ◦ Today such societies are becoming extinct. ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Herding and Horticultural Societies ◦ Herding/Pastoral societies produce small herds of domesticated animals for food and survival, and ◦ Horticultural societies maintain small garden plots for food and survival Herding and Horticultural Societies ◦ Semi-Nomadic ◦ Make their living by cultivating food and have some control over its production. ◦ Status differences become important and produce inequality ◦ Some material possessions Agricultural Societies ◦ Rely on raising crops for food ◦ Use technological advances for increased efficiency and higher crop yields Plows Irrigation Use of animals Fertilization Agricultural Societies ◦ The feudal system was born ◦ Food surpluses allowed some individuals to leave the land and to trade goods or services in exchange for food ◦ Use of advanced technologies Industrial Societies ◦ Rely on mechanized production ◦ Pronounced division of labor ◦ Rise in standard of living Wide gaps between owners and laborers ◦ Population concentrates in cities ◦ Kinship patterns change ◦ Social change more rapid Postindustrial or Information Societies ◦ Technology, or scientific knowledge used for utilitarian or economic purposes, is very important ◦ Majority of labor force in service positions ◦ The division of labor more pronounced ◦ Technical and professional education increasingly important Stratification based on technological knowledge and education Postindustrial or Information Societies ◦ Emphasis on science to solve social problems including: Creating alternate energy sources Finding automated ways of completing tasks Using computers and robots to complete tasks formerly done by individuals Culture makes societies unique Culture is the way of life shared by a group of people and how that way of life is passed to the next generation Knowledge Beliefs Values Rules or laws Language Customs Symbols Material products Culture provides a guideline for carrying out tasks Everyone shares a culture with others Culture evolves over time and is adaptive The creature of culture is ongoing and cumulative The transmission of culture separates us from other animals Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one’s own group and its cultural expectations as right, proper, and many times supe …
